Introduction – The Rise of New Religious Ideas (c. 600 BCE–600 CE)

• By 600 BCE, Vedic traditions were questioned, leading to the rise of new religions like Buddhism and Jainism.
• Philosophers and thinkers debated moral, spiritual, and social issues.
• Religious texts like the Upanishads and Tripitakas recorded new ideas.
• Sacred structures like stupas and temples were built, showing religious evolution.

The Upanishads and the Search for Knowledge (c. 600 BCE Onward)

• The Upanishads were philosophical texts that questioned ritual sacrifices and focused on self-realization.
• They emphasized concepts like: Brahman (Universal Soul) – The ultimate reality of the universe.
  • Atman (Individual Soul) – The inner self of a person.
  • Moksha (Liberation) – Freedom from the cycle of birth and death (samsara).
  • Karma (Action and Consequence) – One’s actions determine future rebirths.

The Teachings of Mahavira and Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE) was the 24th Tirthankara and the founder of Jainism.

Core Principles of Jainism

• Ahimsa (Non-violence) – No harm to any living being.
• Satya (Truthfulness) – Always speak the truth.
• Asteya (Non-stealing) – Do not take anything that is not given.
• Brahmacharya (Celibacy) – Control over desires.
• Aparigraha (Non-possession) – Live a simple life without material wealth.

Impact of Jainism

• Spread among traders and merchants who followed non-violence in business.
• Jain monks practiced extreme asceticism and avoided settled life.

The Life and Teachings of Buddha and Buddhism

• Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563–483 BCE), later called Buddha, founded Buddhism.
• He attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya.

The Four Noble Truths

• Dukkha (Suffering) – Life is full of suffering.
• Samudaya (Cause of Suffering) – Desire (tanha) causes suffering.
• Nirodha (End of Suffering) – Overcoming desire ends suffering.
• Magga (Path to End Suffering) – The Eightfold Path leads to liberation.

The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

• Right View – Understand reality correctly.
• Right Intention – Develop good thoughts.
• Right Speech – Speak truthfully and kindly.
• Right Action – Follow ethical conduct.
• Right Livelihood – Earn a living in a moral way.
• Right Effort – Avoid evil thoughts and cultivate good ones.
• Right Mindfulness – Be aware of thoughts and actions.
• Right Concentration – Meditate for mental clarity.

Spread of Buddhism

• Buddha’s teachings were simple and rejected caste-based discrimination.
• Missionaries spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka, China, and Southeast Asia.

Religious Debates and the Role of Kings

Indian rulers patronized different religions, influencing their growth.

Ashoka and Buddhism (Mauryan Empire)

• Ashoka (268–232 BCE) promoted Buddhism after the Kalinga War.
• Built stupas and pillars with Buddhist teachings.
• Sent missionaries to foreign lands to spread Buddhism.

Patronage of Brahmanism

Later rulers like the Guptas supported Vedic traditions and temple construction.

Stupas, Monasteries, and Temples – Sacred Architecture

Religious structures like stupas, viharas, and temples became centers of worship and learning.

Stupas – Buddhist Monuments

• Stupas were large, dome-shaped structures containing relics of Buddha or Buddhist monks.
• Famous stupas: Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh).
• Decorated with Jataka tales (stories from Buddha’s previous lives).

Viharas – Buddhist Monasteries

• Built as resting places for monks and students.
• Some were carved into caves (Ajanta and Ellora in Maharashtra).

Hindu Temples

• During the Gupta period, temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were built.
• Early temple architecture developed in north (Nagara style) and south India (Dravida style).

The Development of Puranic Hinduism

From 300 CE onward, Hinduism evolved, focusing on bhakti (devotion) and temple worship.

Features of Puranic Hinduism

• Vedas were simplified for common people through Puranas (mythological texts).
• New deities gained prominence (Vishnu, Shiva, Devi).
• Bhakti movements emphasized personal devotion over rituals.

Religious Coexistence and Cultural Integration

• Despite differences, Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism influenced each other.
• Art, architecture, and literature reflected a blend of religious ideas.

Religious Art and Sculpture

• Buddhist and Hindu sculptures were often created in the same locations (Ellora caves).
• Influence of Buddhist iconography in Hindu and Jain art.

Common Philosophical Themes

• Ahimsa (non-violence) was central to Jainism and Buddhism.
• Karma and rebirth were shared beliefs across religions.

Conclusion