Introduction – The Agrarian World of Mughal India

• During the Mughal period, the economy was primarily agrarian, with the majority of people engaged in agriculture.
• The Mughal state depended on land revenue as its main source of income.
• Peasants, zamindars, and the Mughal rulers played interconnected roles in the agrarian economy.
• The Mughal Empire had one of the most sophisticated revenue collection systems of its time.

Peasants and Agricultural Production

• Peasants, also called raiyats, were the primary cultivators of land.
• Agricultural expansion was encouraged through irrigation and new crop varieties.

Land Ownership and Cultivation

• Most peasants were tenants, cultivating land owned by zamindars or the state.
• Some peasants had hereditary rights over their land, while others paid rent.
• Women participated in agricultural labor, especially in sowing, harvesting, and processing crops.

Crops and Irrigation

• Main crops: Rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, and cotton.
• Cash crops: Indigo, opium, and tobacco were grown for trade.
• Irrigation: Wells, tanks, canals, and Persian wheels (rehat) improved productivity.

Land Revenue System Under the Mughals

• The Mughal state relied on land revenue as its primary source of income.
• Revenue collection was highly organized, ensuring a stable income for the empire.

The Mansabdari System and Revenue Collection

• Mansabdars (military officers) were assigned jagirs (land grants) to collect revenue.
• Jagirdars (holders of jagirs) had to deposit a fixed revenue amount to the treasury.

The Zabti System (Todar Mal’s Revenue System)

• Introduced during Akbar’s reign by Todar Mal (Finance Minister).
• Land was measured, and revenue was fixed based on the productivity of the soil.
• Peasants had to pay one-third of their produce as tax.

Other Revenue Systems

• Batai (Sharing System): Peasants and the state shared the harvest.
• Kankut: Estimated crop production and fixed revenue accordingly.
• Nasaq: Rough estimates were used for revenue assessment.

The Role of Zamindars in Mughal India

• Zamindars were local landowners and intermediaries between peasants and the Mughal state.
• They had hereditary rights over land and collected revenue from peasants.

Functions of Zamindars

• Collected land revenue and deposited it in the royal treasury.
• Maintained local law and order, resolving disputes.
• Some zamindars had their own armies and forts.

Conflict Between Zamindars and Peasants

• Some zamindars exploited peasants by demanding extra taxes.
• Peasants often resisted through protests and migrations.
• Zamindars sometimes revolted against the Mughal state, causing instability.

The Agrarian Crisis and Peasant Revolts

• During the later Mughal period, peasants faced heavy taxation and exploitation.
• This led to agrarian unrest and revolts against the zamindars and Mughal authorities.

Causes of Peasant Revolts

• Excessive taxation and harsh revenue collection methods.
• Frequent famines and food shortages.
• Oppression by zamindars and jagirdars.

Major Peasant Revolts

• The Jat Revolt (17th century, Mathura region).
• The Satnami Revolt (1672, Punjab).
• The Sikh Peasant Revolt against Mughal rule.

The Mughal Economy and Rural-Urban Interaction

• Agricultural production supported a flourishing economy with strong rural-urban connections.
• The surplus produce from villages supplied cities and trade centers.

Urban Demand for Agricultural Goods

• Large cities like Delhi, Agra, and Lahore depended on rural supplies.
• Urban industries used raw materials like cotton, indigo, and sugarcane.

Role of Artisans and Traders

• Artisans (weavers, potters, blacksmiths) processed agricultural goods into finished products.
• Traders transported goods between villages and cities, linking rural and urban economies.

The Decline of the Mughal Agrarian System

• By the late 17th century, the Mughal agrarian system began to weaken.
• Several factors contributed to its decline.

Causes of Decline

• Over-taxation reduced peasant productivity.
• Corruption among revenue officials and zamindars.
• Frequent wars drained the treasury and disrupted agriculture.
• Natural calamities (droughts, floods) damaged crops and led to famines.

Conclusion